4.28 Europe: a.d. 1401 to 1500  (Page 3/16)

NOTE: Insert Map 45. Renaissance Italy

Among the great artists of the era were Botticelli, Leonardo Da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangelo. Leonardo was one of the greatest geniuses of all time, a brilliant, multi- faceted, secretive man, born as an illegitimate son to a notary, basically left-handed, but apparently somewhat ambidextrous and who of ten wrote in mirror image. Known primarily as an artist and sculptor, he was perhaps even more interested in science, including human anatomy, comparative anatomy, botany, geology, physiology, mechanical and hydraulic engineering, astronomy and military engineering. In addition he was a philosopher, of ten writing in paraphrase in a method very reminiscent of the New Testament and he even did some work in music, mathematics and, of course, architecture. He has been called an homosexual, but in the large, beautiful text of his work, called simply "Leonardo da Vinci" (Ref. 121 ), the only reference by any of the biographers to his personal, emotional life was the statement by Giorgio Nicodemi: "There is no trace in his life of women, who may have smiled at him or been his companions.”

Science could make but moderate advances in this period and medicine made more progress than most, but even the most advanced anatomists and physicians of this age had barely reached, by 1500, the knowledge possessed by Hippocrates, Galen and Soranus between 450 B.C. and A.D. 200. Syphilis became rampant in Italy in 1493 and 1494 and the argument still goes on to whether or not this was brought from America. Celsus' old book De Medicina was one of the first medical texts ever printed (Florence, 1478). In addition, in 1487 Mondino de Luzzi's treatise on dissection techniques, called Anathomia was published at Padua and used as a standard text through forty editions, until the time of Vesalius. The treatise was actually written at the University of Bologna in 1316. (Ref. 50 , 125 )

Some new navigable canals and irrigation systems were built during this period. The first Great War between the Turks and Venice (1463-1479) developed over interference with trade and the Turkish threat to Albanian and Greek coastal possessions of Venice. In 1480 Naples, too, was sacked by Turks and at the end of the century almost of Italy, except Naples, came under French control as Charles VIII invaded in 1494. For the first time, artillery became a major element in European warfare in this campaign. It became apparent then that the community financed, local mercenary armies of the city-states of Italy could not stop intervention from outside the peninsula. Florence and the Papal States yielded readily to the French and even a fortress of the border of the Kingdom of Naples fell in 8 hours of bombardment by the new French guns, as its wall were reduced to rubble. (Ref. 279 )