8.2 Graphene

Introduction

Graphene is a one-atom-thick planar sheet of sp ² -bonded carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice ( [link] ). The name comes from “graphite” and “alkene”; graphite itself consists of many graphene sheets stacked together.

Single-layer graphene nanosheets were first characterized in 2004, prepared by mechanical exfoliation (the “scotch-tape” method) of bulk graphite. Later graphene was produced by epitaxial chemical vapor deposition on silicon carbide and nickel substrates. Most recently, graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) have been prepared by the oxidative treatment of carbon nanotubes and by plasma etching of nanotubes embedded in polymer films.

Physical properties of graphene

Graphene has been reported to have a Young’s modulus of 1 TPa and intrinsic strength of 130 GP; similar to single walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs). The electronic properties of graphene also have some similarity with carbon nanotubes. Graphene is a zero-bandgap semiconductor. Electron mobility in graphene is extraordinarily high (15,000 cm ² /V.s at room temperature) and ballistic electron transport is reported to be on length scales comparable to that of SWNTs. One of the most promising aspects of graphene involves the use of GNRs. Cutting an individual graphene layer into a long strip can yield semiconducting materials where the bandgap is tuned by the width of the ribbon.

While graphene’s novel electronic and physical properties guarantee this material will be studied for years to come, there are some fundamental obstacles yet to overcome before graphene based materials can be fully utilized. The aforementioned methods of graphene preparation are effective; however, they are impractical for large-scale manufacturing. The most plentiful and inexpensive source of graphene is bulk graphite. Chemical methods for exfoliation of graphene from graphite provide the most realistic and scalable approach to graphene materials.

Graphene layers are held together in graphite by enormous van der Waals forces. Overcoming these forces is the major obstacle to graphite exfoliation. To date, chemical efforts at graphite exfoliation have been focused primarily on intercalation, chemical derivatization, thermal expansion, oxidation-reduction, the use of surfactants, or some combination of these.

Graphite oxide

Probably the most common route to graphene involves the production of graphite oxide (GO) by extremely harsh oxidation chemistry. The methods of Staudenmeier or Hummers are most commonly used to produce GO, a highly exfoliated material that is dispersible in water. The structure of GO has been the subject of numerous studies; it is known to contain epoxide functional groups along the basal plane of sheets as well as hydroxyl and carboxyl moieties along the edges ( [link] ). In contrast to other methods for the synthesis of GO, the the m -peroxybenzoic acid ( m -CPBA) oxidation of microcrystalline synthetic graphite at room temperature yields graphite epoxide in high yield, without significant additional defects.