31.3 Europe: a.d. 1601 to 1700  (Page 4/30)

Stages of the war (named for habsburg opponents in each period)

Bohemian phase

Frederick V of the Palatinate became a Calvinist Bohemian king and fought Habsburg Ferdinand II, but he got poor support and lasted only one winter. Ferdinand occupied and completely subdued all of Bohemia, outlawed the Czech language and replaced the elective kingship by the hereditary rule of the Habsburgs. The remarkable achievements of the Bohemian Baron von Wallenstein during the war years are detailed in subsequent paragraphs and the CZECHOSLOVAKIA section of this chapter.

Danish phase

Christian IV of Denmark responded to Franco-English pressure and invaded lower Saxony, but was eventually defeated by both General Tilly and General Wallenstein, of the Catholic imperialist forces. In fact, by 1630 imperial and Catholic power had reached its greatest mark and the German princes, Catholic and Protestant alike, began to worry about their own rights and powers.

Swedish phase

After Sweden's Gustavus Adolphus finished his Polish War, in which he obtained the Lithuanian coast and bases in Prussia, he swung around and into Germany, probably for both religious and territorial reasons. After defeating Tilly near Leipzig, Gustavus, who spoke fluent German (learned from his mother), became a German hero and Protestant forces flocked to his side. The Swedes moved far into south Germany and even occupied Munich. In 1632, in a battle with Wallenstein, now restored to power again by the Habsburgs, Gustavus Adolphus was killed while leading his victorious forces. Swedish power was at once dimmed by the disappearance of this forceful king-general and his minister, Oxenstierna, could not carry the field much longer. Furthermore, after Wallenstein was murdered by some of his own sub-generals, the Catholic forces again became more active and forced the Swedes out of southern Germany. Then Saxony made a separate peace with Errperor Ferdinand III, in the Peace of Prague (1635). The terms again gave much power to the emperor, and although accepted unwillingly by most of the German princes, France could not acquiesce in this increase in imperial power.

Map taken from Reference 97

French phase

So, in 1635 France declared war on Spain and Austria, and began full scale war in the Pyrenees, in the north against the Spanish Netherlands and in the east against Spanish and Austrian possessions in Germany. In the long run Swedish-French power prevailed almost everywhere and Germany was thoroughly exhausted. Debates about peace drug on in Westphalia for 4 years while armies continued to fight, with the final peace concluded in 1648.

The peace of westphalia

The war left the basic Habsburg Empire intact but destitute. Only the territorial lords seemed to get a clear-cut victory. Prussia emerged as a strong state and Bavaria gained territory and retained the Upper Palatinate. While most German cities were ruined, Hamburg actually prospered by taking over the previous function of Antwerp as a center of refuge for all exiles, after the latter city had fallen to the Spaniards. (Ref. 213 ) No religious freedom remained in the Habsburg hereditary lands. France and Spain remained at war for another 11 years after the treaty, but France, along with Sweden, reaped the most important benefits. Toul, Metz and Verdun were all given to France, along with other valuable cities and territories in Alsace which gave a bridgehead whereby France could move forces into Germany at will. Sweden got western Pomerania, Stettin and many harbors, keeping good control over northern Germany. Holland and the Swiss Cantons were permanently free.