0.18 Natural capital: water  (Page 5/11)

One of the most important ways to conserve water is improving maintenance and operation of water-delivery systems, such measures include:

1. Improve irrigation efficiency.
   Irrigation canals constantly hemorrhage water through their beds. Much of this is unavoidable. However, some of this water can be saved by steps to increase irrigation efficiency. Such measures include drop irrigation, and avoidance of water thirsty crops such as cotton.
2. Metering
   When possible, water meters should be used to charge for water used. In Panama installation of meters reduced residential water use by 22%. Metering is not possible everywhere primarily for administrative reasons, but could become especially important in India, as we will see.
3. Maintaining water pipes
   Maintaining water pipes that deliver water helps curb or stop ubiquitous leaks of massive amounts of water, such as experienced in New York City and Delhi.

Needless water wastage from this source is common the world over. In the U.S., 18% of drinking water is lost through leaks in water systems and water main breaks. In some cities in Pakistan 60% of water supplies are wasted due to leakages and/or theft .

Water leaks are not inevitable. Consider Singapore: Singapore must conserve water. It imports almost all water through a pipeline from Malaysia. The city-state has taken vigorous measures to conserve water. Notably Singapore loses only 3% of its water to leaks , because the city-state faces a very strong incentive to avoid water waste.

India, pakistan and syria: critical issues

India’s water problems have been exacerbated by several factors, including effects of climate change especially the effects of melting of Himalayan glaciers that feed the Ganges, Indus and Brahmaputra rivers. This is clearly occurring, although the United Nations overstated melting in 2011. However, much of recent glacial melting in India is not due to CO2 effects, but due to “brown clouds,” (soot from smokestacks).

Water has also been wasted, owing to at least five factors:

1. Deep under pricing of water usage. In big cities, pricing policies of government water boards covers only 40% of costs. For example, water is so underpriced in Delhi that citizens use 220 liters per person per day: twice that of much wealthier Paris.
2. Deep under pricing of electricity to run water pumps contributes to water overuse.
3. X-inefficiency or failure to minimize costs (see Chapter ___) in SOEs responsible for water supplies is also a factor. Water in India is provided by Government Irrigation Departments. These departments are also deeply underfunded, understaffed and corrupt. The result has been very poor maintenance of water systems. Leakages are large. A water leak just ¼ in diameter results in losses of 15,000 gallons per day. At higher water prices, there would be a much greater incentive to fix leaks.
4. Siltation of reservoirs from dams built to hold water contribute to the problem. Recall the discussion of deforestation and siltration in Chapter___. Each year India loses to siltation about 2/3 of any new water storage capacity it builds
5. Misdirected planning is the final factor leading to waste. Between 1992-2004 India built 200 large and medium size irrigation projects. Nevertheless the area under irrigation eventually shrunk by 3.2 million hectares (about 6.5 million acres).