<< Chapter < Page Chapter >> Page >
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
  • Define relativistic momentum in terms of mass and velocity
  • Show how relativistic momentum relates to classical momentum
  • Show how conservation of relativistic momentum limits objects with mass to speeds less than c

Momentum is a central concept in physics. The broadest form of Newton’s second law is stated in terms of momentum. Momentum is conserved whenever the net external force on a system is zero. This makes momentum conservation a fundamental tool for analyzing collisions ( [link] ). Much of what we know about subatomic structure comes from the analysis of collisions of accelerator-produced relativistic particles, and momentum conservation plays a crucial role in this analysis.

A photo of a football player tackling an opponent.
Momentum is an important concept for these football players from the University of California at Berkeley and the University of California at Davis. A player with the same velocity but greater mass collides with greater impact because his momentum is greater. For objects moving at relativistic speeds, the effect is even greater.

The first postulate of relativity states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames. Does the law of conservation of momentum survive this requirement at high velocities? It can be shown that the momentum calculated as merely p = m d x d t , even if it is conserved in one frame of reference, may not be conserved in another after applying the Lorentz transformation to the velocities. The correct equation for momentum can be shown, instead, to be the classical expression in terms of the increment d τ of proper time of the particle, observed in the particle’s rest frame:

p = m d x d τ = m d x d t d t d τ = m d x d t 1 1 u 2 / c 2 = m u 1 u 2 / c 2 = γ m u .

Relativistic momentum

Relativistic momentum p is classical momentum multiplied by the relativistic factor γ :

p = γ m u

where m is the rest mass    of the object, u is its velocity relative to an observer, and γ is the relativistic factor:

γ = 1 1 u 2 c 2 .

Note that we use u for velocity here to distinguish it from relative velocity v between observers. The factor γ that occurs here has the same form as the previous relativistic factor γ except that it is now in terms of the velocity of the particle u instead of the relative velocity v of two frames of reference.

With p expressed in this way, total momentum p tot is conserved whenever the net external force is zero, just as in classical physics. Again we see that the relativistic quantity becomes virtually the same as the classical quantity at low velocities, where u / c is small and γ is very nearly equal to 1. Relativistic momentum has the same intuitive role as classical momentum. It is greatest for large masses moving at high velocities, but because of the factor γ , relativistic momentum approaches infinity as u approaches c ( [link] ). This is another indication that an object with mass cannot reach the speed of light. If it did, its momentum would become infinite—an unreasonable value.

This is a graph of the relativistic momentum as a function of speed. The function and its slope are zero at u=0, both increase with u, and the function has a vertical asymptote at u=1.0 c
Relativistic momentum approaches infinity as the velocity of an object approaches the speed of light.

The relativistically correct definition of momentum as p = γ m u is sometimes taken to imply that mass varies with velocity: m var = γ m , particularly in older textbooks. However, note that m is the mass of the object as measured by a person at rest relative to the object. Thus, m is defined to be the rest mass, which could be measured at rest, perhaps using gravity. When a mass is moving relative to an observer, the only way that its mass can be determined is through collisions or other means involving momentum. Because the mass of a moving object cannot be determined independently of momentum, the only meaningful mass is rest mass. Therefore, when we use the term “mass,” assume it to be identical to “rest mass.”

Relativistic momentum is defined in such a way that conservation of momentum holds in all inertial frames. Whenever the net external force on a system is zero, relativistic momentum is conserved, just as is the case for classical momentum. This has been verified in numerous experiments.

Check Your Understanding What is the momentum of an electron traveling at a speed 0.985 c ? The rest mass of the electron is 9.11 × 10 −31 kg .

Substitute the data into the given equation:
p = γ m u = m u 1 u 2 c 2 = ( 9.11 × 10 −31 kg ) ( 0.985 ) ( 3.00 × 10 8 m/s ) 1 ( 0.985 c ) 2 c 2 = 1.56 × 10 −21 kg-m/s.

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

Summary

  • The law of conservation of momentum is valid for relativistic momentum whenever the net external force is zero. The relativistic momentum is p = γ m u , where m is the rest mass of the object, u is its velocity relative to an observer, and the relativistic factor is γ = 1 1 u 2 c 2 .
  • At low velocities, relativistic momentum is equivalent to classical momentum.
  • Relativistic momentum approaches infinity as u approaches c . This implies that an object with mass cannot reach the speed of light.

Conceptual questions

How does modern relativity modify the law of conservation of momentum?

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

Is it possible for an external force to be acting on a system and relativistic momentum to be conserved? Explain.

Yes. This can happen if the external force is balanced by other externally applied forces, so that the net external force is zero.

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

Problems

Find the momentum of a helium nucleus having a mass of 6.68 × 10 −27 kg that is moving at 0.200 c .

4.09 × 10 −19 kg · m/s

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

What is the momentum of an electron traveling at 0.980 c ?

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

(a) Find the momentum of a 1.00 × 10 9 -kg asteroid heading towards Earth at 30.0 km/s. (b) Find the ratio of this momentum to the classical momentum. (Hint: Use the approximation that γ = 1 + ( 1 / 2 ) v 2 / c 2 at low velocities.)

a. 3.000000015 × 10 13 kg · m/s; b. 1.000000005

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

(a) What is the momentum of a 2000-kg satellite orbiting at 4.00 km/s? (b) Find the ratio of this momentum to the classical momentum. (Hint: Use the approximation that γ = 1 + ( 1 / 2 ) v 2 / c 2 at low velocities.)

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

What is the velocity of an electron that has a momentum of 3.04 × 10 −21 kg · m/s ? Note that you must calculate the velocity to at least four digits to see the difference from c .

2.988 × 10 8 m/s

Got questions? Get instant answers now!

Find the velocity of a proton that has a momentum of 4.48 × 10 −19 kg · m/s .

Got questions? Get instant answers now!
Practice Key Terms 2

Get Jobilize Job Search Mobile App in your pocket Now!

Get it on Google Play Download on the App Store Now




Source:  OpenStax, University physics volume 3. OpenStax CNX. Nov 04, 2016 Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col12067/1.4
Google Play and the Google Play logo are trademarks of Google Inc.

Notification Switch

Would you like to follow the 'University physics volume 3' conversation and receive update notifications?

Ask