Suppose you toss 100 coins starting with 60 heads and 40 tails, and you get the most likely result, 50 heads and 50 tails. What is the change in entropy?
Strategy
Noting that the number of microstates is labeled
in
[link] for the 100-coin toss, we can use
to calculate the change in entropy.
Solution
The change in entropy is
where the subscript i stands for the initial 60 heads and 40 tails state, and the subscript f for the final 50 heads and 50 tails state. Substituting the values for
from
[link] gives
Discussion
This increase in entropy means we have moved to a less orderly situation. It is not impossible for further tosses to produce the initial state of 60 heads and 40 tails, but it is less likely. There is about a 1 in 90 chance for that decrease in entropy (
) to occur. If we calculate the decrease in entropy to move to the most orderly state, we get
. There is about a
chance of this change occurring. So while very small decreases in entropy are unlikely, slightly greater decreases are impossibly unlikely. These probabilities imply, again, that for a macroscopic system, a decrease in entropy is impossible. For example, for heat transfer to occur spontaneously from 1.00 kg of
ice to its
environment, there would be a decrease in entropy of
. Given that a
corresponds to about a
chance, a decrease of this size (
) is an
utter impossibility. Even for a milligram of melted ice to spontaneously refreeze is impossible.
Examine the situation to determine if entropy is involved.
Identify the system of interest and draw a labeled diagram of the system showing energy flow.
Identify exactly what needs to be determined in the problem (identify the unknowns). A written list is useful.
Make a list of what is given or can be inferred from the problem as stated (identify the knowns). You must carefully identify the heat transfer, if any, and the temperature at which the process takes place. It is also important to identify the initial and final states.
Solve the appropriate equation for the quantity to be determined (the unknown). Note that the change in entropy can be determined between any states by calculating it for a reversible process.
Substitute the known value along with their units into the appropriate equation, and obtain numerical solutions complete with units.
To see if it is reasonable: Does it make sense? For example, total entropy should increase for any real process or be constant for a reversible process. Disordered states should be more probable and have greater entropy than ordered states.
Section summary
Disorder is far more likely than order, which can be seen statistically.
The entropy of a system in a given state (a macrostate) can be written as
where
is Boltzmann’s constant, and
is the natural logarithm of the number of microstates
corresponding to the given macrostate.
Step 1: Find the mean. To find the mean, add up all the scores, then divide them by the number of scores. ...
Step 2: Find each score's deviation from the mean. ...
Step 3: Square each deviation from the mean. ...
Step 4: Find the sum of squares. ...
Step 5: Divide the sum of squares by n – 1 or N.
The sample of 16 students is taken. The average age in the sample was 22 years with astandard deviation of 6 years. Construct a 95% confidence interval for the age of the population.
Bhartdarshan' is an internet-based travel agency wherein customer can see videos of the cities they plant to visit. The number of hits daily is a normally distributed random variable with a mean of 10,000 and a standard deviation of 2,400
a. what is the probability of getting more than 12,000 hits?
b. what is the probability of getting fewer than 9,000 hits?
Bhartdarshan'is an internet-based travel agency wherein customer can see videos of the cities they plan to visit. The number of hits daily is a normally distributed random variable with a mean of 10,000 and a standard deviation of 2,400.
a. What is the probability of getting more than 12,000 hits