College physics for ap® courses

OpenStax

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0.1 About openstax

0.2 About openstax resources

0.3 Customization

0.6 About College Physics for AP® Courses

0.7 Coverage, scope, and alignment to the ap® curriculum

0.8 Pedagogical foundation and features

0.10 Ap physics collection

0.11 Additional resources

0.12 Student and instructor resources

0.13 Partner resources

0.14 About the authors

0.15 Senior contributing authors

0.16 Advanced placement teacher reviewers

0.17 Faculty reviewers

0.18 To the ap® physics student

0.19 To the ap® physics teacher

1 Atomic masses

2 Selected radioactive isotopes

3 Useful information

4 Glossary of key symbols and notation

Introduction: the nature of science and physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Physics: an introduction

2 Physical quantities and units

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Si units: fundamental and derived units

2.3 Units of time, length, and mass: the second, meter, and kilogram

2.6 The kilogram

2.7 Metric prefixes

2.8 Known ranges of length, mass, and time

2.9 Unit conversion and dimensional analysis

2.10 Unit conversions: a short drive home

2.12 Conceptual questions

2.13 Problems & Exercises

3 Accuracy, precision, and significant figures

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Accuracy and precision of a measurement

3.3 Accuracy, precision, and uncertainty

3.4 Percent uncertainty

3.5 Uncertainties in calculations

3.6 Precision of measuring tools and significant figures

3.8 Significant figures in calculations

3.9 Significant figures in this text

3.11 Conceptual questions

3.12 Problems & Exercises

4 Approximation

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Approximating vast numbers: a trillion dollars

4.4 Problems & Exercises

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.3 Displacement

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

1.8 Test prep for ap courses

2 Vectors, scalars, and coordinate systems

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Coordinate systems for one-dimensional motion

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

3 Time, velocity, and speed

3.1 Learning objectives

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

3.8 Test prep for ap courses

5 Motion equations for constant acceleration in one dimension

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Notation: t , x , v , a

5.3 Putting equations together

5.4 Calculating displacement: how far does a car go when coming to a halt?

5.5 Section summary

5.6 Problems & Exercises

5.7 Test prep for ap courses

6 Problem-solving basics for one dimensional kinematics

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Problem-solving steps

6.9 Unreasonable results

6.13 Section summary

6.14 Conceptual questions

7 Falling objects

7.1 Learning objectives

7.3 One-dimensional motion involving gravity

7.4 Calculating position and velocity of a falling object: a rock thrown

7.5 Calculating velocity of a falling object: a rock thrown down

7.6 Find g From data on a falling object

7.7 Section summary

7.8 Conceptual questions

7.9 Problems & Exercises

7.10 Test prep for ap courses

8 Graphical analysis of one dimensional motion

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Slopes and general relationships

8.3 Graph of displacement vs. time ( a = 0, so v Is constant)

8.4 Graphs of motion when a Is constant but a ≠ 0

8.5 Graphs of motion where acceleration is not constant

8.6 Section summary

8.7 Conceptual questions

8.8 Problems & Exercises

Two-dimensional kinematics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Kinematics in two dimensions: an introduction

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Two-dimensional motion: walking in a city

1.3 The independence of perpendicular motions

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

2 Vector addition and subtraction: graphical methods

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Vectors in two dimensions

2.3 Vector addition: head-to-tail method

2.4 Adding vectors graphically using the head-to-tail method: a woman takes

2.5 Vector subtraction

2.6 Multiplication of vectors and scalars

2.7 Resolving a vector into components

2.8 Test prep for ap courses

2.10 Conceptual questions

2.11 Problems & Exercises

3 Vector addition and subtraction: analytical methods

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Resolving a vector into perpendicular components

3.3 Calculating a resultant vector

3.4 Adding vectors using analytical methods

3.5 Adding vectors using analytical methods

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Projectile motion

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 A fireworks projectile explodes high and away

4.3 Calculating projectile motion: hot rock projectile

4.4 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems & Exercises

5 Addition of velocities

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Relative velocity

5.3 Calculating velocity: wind velocity causes an airplane to drift

5.4 Relative velocities and classical relativity

5.5 Calculating relative velocity: an airline passenger drops a coin

5.7 Conceptual questions

5.8 Problems & Exercises

Dynamics: force and newton's laws of motion

Connection for ap® courses

1 Development of force concept

2 Newton's first law of motion: inertia

3 Newton's second law of motion: concept of a system

4 Newton's third law of motion: symmetry in forces

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Getting up to speed: choosing the correct system

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problem exercises

5 Normal, tension, and other examples of force

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Normal force

5.3 Weight on an incline, a two-dimensional problem

5.5 What is the tension in a tightrope?

5.6 Extended topic: real forces and inertial frames

5.7 Test prep for ap courses

5.8 Section summary

5.9 Conceptual questions

5.10 Problem exercises

6 Problem-solving strategies

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Problem-solving strategy for newton’s laws of motion

6.3 Test prep for ap courses

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Problem exercises

7 Further applications of newton's laws of motion

8 Extended topic: the four basic forces—an introduction

Further applications of newton's laws: friction, drag, and elasticity

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Skiing exercise

1.3 Test prep for ap courses

1.4 Section summary

1.5 Conceptual questions

1.6 Problems & Exercises

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Section summary

2.3 Conceptual questions

2.4 Problems & Exercise

3 Elasticity: stress and strain

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Changes in length—tension and compression: elastic modulus

3.3 Sideways stress: shear modulus

3.4 Changes in volume: bulk modulus

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

Gravitation and uniform circular motion

Connection for ap® courses

1 Rotation angle and angular velocity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Rotation angle

1.3 Angular velocity

1.4 Section summary

1.5 Conceptual questions

1.6 Problem exercises

2 Centripetal acceleration

3 Centripetal force

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 What coefficient of friction do car tires need on a flat curve?

3.3 Section summary

3.4 Conceptual questions

3.5 Problems exercise

4 Fictitious forces and non-inertial frames: the coriolis force

5 Newton's universal law of gravitation

5.1 Learning objectives

5.3 ”weightlessness” and microgravity

5.4 The cavendish experiment: then and now

5.5 Test prep for ap courses

5.6 Section summary

5.7 Conceptual questions

5.8 Problem exercises

6 Satellites and kepler's laws: an argument for simplicity

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Kepler's laws of planetary motion

6.3 Derivation of kepler's third law for circular orbits

6.4 The case for simplicity

6.5 Section summary

6.6 Conceptual questions

6.7 Problem exercises

Work, energy, and energy resources

Connection for ap® courses

1 Work: the scientific definition

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 What it means to do work

1.3 Calculating work

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Kinetic energy and the work-energy theorem

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Work transfers energy

2.3 Net work and the work-energy theorem

2.4 Determining the work to accelerate a package

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

2.6 Section summary

2.7 Conceptual questions

2.8 Problems & Exercises

3 Gravitational potential energy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Work done against gravity

3.3 Converting between potential energy and kinetic energy

3.4 Using potential energy to simplify calculations

3.5 Finding the speed of a roller coaster from its height

3.6 Test prep for ap courses

3.7 Section summary

3.8 Conceptual questions

3.9 Problems & Exercises

4 Conservative forces and potential energy

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Potential energy and conservative forces

4.3 Potential energy of a spring

4.4 Conservation of mechanical energy

4.5 Using conservation of mechanical energy to calculate the speed of a toy

4.6 Test prep for ap courses

4.7 Section summary

4.8 Conceptual questions

4.9 Problems & Exercises

5 Nonconservative forces

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Nonconservative forces and friction

5.3 How nonconservative forces affect mechanical energy

5.4 How the work-energy theorem applies

5.5 Applying energy conservation with nonconservative forces

5.6 Test prep for ap courses

5.7 Section summary

5.8 Problems & Exercises

6 Conservation of energy

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Law of conservation of energy

6.3 Other forms of energy than mechanical energy

6.4 Some of the many forms of energy

6.5 Transformation of energy

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problems & Exercises

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 What is power?

7.3 Calculating power from energy

7.4 Examples of power

7.5 Power and energy consumption

7.6 Section summary

7.7 Conceptual questions

7.8 Problems & Exercises

8 Work, energy, and power in humans

9 World energy use

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Renewable and nonrenewable energy sources

9.3 The world’s growing energy needs

9.4 Energy and economic well-being

9.5 Conserving energy

9.6 Section summary

9.7 Conceptual questions

9.8 Problems & Exercises

Linear momentum and collisions

Connection for ap® courses

1 Linear momentum and force

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Linear momentum

1.3 Momentum and newton’s second law

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Calculating magnitudes of impulses: two billiard balls striking a rigid

2.3 Test prep for ap courses

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

3 Conservation of momentum

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Subatomic collisions and momentum

3.3 Test prep for ap courses

3.4 Section summary

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Elastic collisions in one dimension

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating velocities following an elastic collision

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problems & Exercises

5 Inelastic collisions in one dimension

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Calculating velocity and change in kinetic energy: inelastic collision

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problems & Exercises

6 Collisions of point masses in two dimensions

7 Introduction to rocket propulsion

Statics and torque

Connection for ap® courses

1 The first condition for equilibrium

2 The second condition for equilibrium

4 Applications of statics, including problem-solving strategies

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 Conceptual questions

4.4 Problems & Exercises

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

5 Simple machines

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Section summary

5.3 Conceptual questions

5.4 Problems & Exercises

5.5 Test prep for ap courses

6 Forces and torques in muscles and joints

Rotational motion and angular momentum

Connection for ap® courses

1 Angular acceleration

2 Kinematics of rotational motion

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Calculating the acceleration of a fishing reel

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Problems & Exercises

3 Dynamics of rotational motion: rotational inertia

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Rotational inertia and moment of inertia

3.3 Calculating the effect of mass distribution on a merry-go-round

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

4 Rotational kinetic energy: work and energy revisited

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating the work and energy for spinning a grindstone

4.3 Calculating helicopter energies

4.4 How thick is the soup? or why don't all objects roll downhill at the

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Angular momentum and its conservation

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Calculating the torque in a kick

5.3 Conservation of angular momentum

5.4 Calculating the angular momentum of a spinning skater

5.5 Test prep for ap courses

5.6 Section summary

5.7 Conceptual questions

5.8 Problems & Exercises

6 Collisions of extended bodies in two dimensions

7 Gyroscopic effects: vector aspects of angular momentum

Connection for ap® courses

1 What is a fluid?

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Section summary

1.3 Conceptual questions

4 Variation of pressure with depth in a fluid

5 Pascal’s principle

6 Gauge pressure, absolute pressure, and pressure measurement

7 Archimedes’ principle

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Floating and sinking

7.3 Calculating buoyant force: dependency on shape

7.4 Density and archimedes' principle

7.5 More density measurements

7.6 Section summary

7.7 Conceptual questions

7.8 Problem exercises

8 Cohesion and adhesion in liquids: surface tension and capillary action

9 Pressures in the body

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Pressure in the body

9.3 Blood pressure

9.4 Pressure in the eye

9.5 Pressure associated with the lungs

9.6 Other pressures in the body

9.7 Spinal column and skull

9.8 Bladder pressure

9.9 Pressures in the skeletal system

9.10 Section summary

9.11 Problems & Exercises

Fluid dynamics and its biological and medical applications

Connection for ap® courses

1 Flow rate and its relation to velocity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Calculating flow speed and vessel diameter: branching in the cardiovascular

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problems & Exercises

1.6 Test prep for ap courses

2 Bernoulli’s equation

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Bernoulli's equation

2.3 Bernoulli's equation for static fluids

2.4 Bernoulli's principle—bernoulli's equation at constant depth

2.5 Applications of bernoulli's principle

2.6 Entrainment

2.7 Wings and sails

2.8 Velocity measurement

2.10 Conceptual questions

2.11 Problems & Exercises

2.12 Test prep for ap courses

3 The most general applications of bernoulli’s equation

4 Viscosity and laminar flow; poiseuille’s law

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Laminar flow and viscosity

4.3 Laminar flow confined to tubes—poiseuille's law

4.4 Flow and resistance as causes of pressure drops

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems & Exercises

5 The onset of turbulence

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Section summary

5.3 Conceptual questions

5.4 Problems & Exercises

6 Motion of an object in a viscous fluid

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Section summary

6.3 Conceptual questions

7 Molecular transport phenomena: diffusion, osmosis, and related processes

7.1 Learning objectives

7.3 The rate and direction of diffusion

7.4 Osmosis and dialysis—diffusion across membranes

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problem exercises

Temperature, kinetic theory, and the gas laws

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Temperature scales

1.3 Temperature ranges in the universe

1.4 Thermal equilibrium and the zeroth law of thermodynamics

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Thermal expansion of solids and liquids

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Thermal expansion in two and three dimensions

2.3 Thermal stress

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

3 The ideal gas law

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Moles and avogadro’s number

3.3 The ideal gas law restated using moles

3.4 The ideal gas law and energy

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Kinetic theory: atomic and molecular explanation of pressure and

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculating kinetic energy and speed of a gas molecule

4.3 Distribution of molecular speeds

4.4 Calculating temperature: escape velocity of helium atoms

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Phase changes

6 Humidity, evaporation, and boiling

Heat and heat transfer methods

Connection for ap® courses

2 Temperature change and heat capacity

3 Phase change and latent heat

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Calculate final temperature from phase change: cooling soda with ice

3.3 Problem-solving strategies for the effects of heat transfer

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Heat transfer methods

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 Conceptual questions

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Calculating the temperature difference maintained by a heat transfer:

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Test prep for ap courses

5.6 Conceptual questions

5.7 Problems & Exercises

Connection for ap® courses

1 The first law of thermodynamics

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Heat Q And work W

1.3 Internal energy U

1.4 Calculating change in internal energy: the same change in U Is produced

1.5 Human metabolism and the first law of thermodynamics

1.6 Test prep for ap courses

1.7 Section summary

1.8 Conceptual questions

1.9 Problems & Exercises

2 The first law of thermodynamics and some simple processes

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 PV Diagrams and their relationship to work done on or by a gas

2.3 Total work done in a cyclical process equals the area inside the closed

2.4 Reversible processes

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

2.6 Section summary

2.7 Conceptual questions

2.8 Problem exercises

3 Introduction to the second law of thermodynamics: heat engines and their

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Heat engines

3.3 Daily work done by a coal-fired power station, its efficiency and carbon

3.4 Section summary

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problem exercises

4 Carnot’s perfect heat engine: the second law of thermodynamics restated

5 Applications of thermodynamics: heat pumps and refrigerators

5.1 Learning objectives

5.3 Air conditioners and refrigerators

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problem exercises

6 Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics: disorder and the unavailability

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Entropy increases in an irreversible (real) process

6.3 Entropy and the unavailability of energy to do work

6.4 Heat death of the universe: an overdose of entropy

6.5 Order to disorder

6.6 Life, evolution, and the second law of thermodynamics

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problem exercises

7 Statistical interpretation of entropy and the second law of thermodynamics

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Coin tosses

7.3 Disorder in a gas

7.4 Test prep for ap courses

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problem exercises

Oscillatory motion and waves

Connection for ap® courses

1 Hooke’s law: stress and strain revisited

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Energy in hooke’s law of deformation

1.3 Test prep for ap courses

1.4 Section summary

1.5 Conceptual questions

1.6 Problems & Exercises

2 Period and frequency in oscillations

3 Simple harmonic motion: a special periodic motion

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The link between simple harmonic motion and waves

3.3 Test prep for ap courses

3.4 Section summary

3.5 Conceptual questions

3.6 Problems & Exercises

4 The simple pendulum

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Section summary

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Conceptual questions

4.5 Problems & Exercises

5 Energy and the simple harmonic oscillator

6 Uniform circular motion and simple harmonic motion

7 Damped harmonic motion

8 Forced oscillations and resonance

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves

9.3 Test prep for ap courses

9.4 Section summary

9.5 Conceptual questions

9.6 Problems & Exercises

10 Superposition and interference

10.1 Learning objectives

10.2 Standing waves

10.4 Test prep for ap courses

10.5 Section summary

10.6 Conceptual questions

10.7 Problems & Exercises

11 Energy in waves: intensity

11.1 Learning objectives

11.2 Determine the combined intensity of two waves: perfect constructive

11.3 Section summary

11.4 Conceptual questions

11.5 Problems & Exercises

Physics of hearing

Connection for ap® courses

2 Speed of sound, frequency, and wavelength

3 Sound intensity and sound level

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Test prep for ap courses

3.3 Section summary

3.4 Conceptual questions

3.5 Problems & Exercises

4 Doppler effect and sonic booms

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Calculate doppler shift: a train horn

4.3 Sonic booms to bow wakes

4.4 Test prep for ap courses

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems & Exercises

5 Sound interference and resonance: standing waves in air columns

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Section summary

6.3 Conceptual questions

6.4 Problems & Exercises

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Ultrasound in medical therapy

7.3 Ultrasound in medical diagnostics

7.4 Calculate velocity of blood: doppler-shifted ultrasound

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problems & Exercises

Electric charge and electric field

Connection for ap® courses

1 Static electricity and charge: conservation of charge

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Charge carried by electrons and protons

1.3 Separation of charge in atoms

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Conductors and insulators

3 Conductors and electric fields in static equilibrium

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Earth's electric field

3.3 Electric fields on uneven surfaces

3.4 Applications of conductors

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 Coulomb’s law

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Test prep for ap courses

4.3 Section summary

4.4 Conceptual questions

4.5 Problems & Exercises

5 Electric field: concept of a field revisited

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Concept of a field

5.3 Test prep for ap courses

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problem exercises

6 Electric field lines: multiple charges

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Adding electric fields

6.3 Test prep for ap courses

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Problem exercises

7 Electric forces in biology

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Polarity of water molecules

7.3 Section summary

7.4 Conceptual question

8 Applications of electrostatics

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 The van de graaff generator

8.4 Laser printers

8.5 Ink jet printers and electrostatic painting

8.6 Smoke precipitators and electrostatic air cleaning

8.7 Integrated concepts

8.8 Acceleration of a charged drop of gasoline

8.9 Section summary

8.10 Problems & Exercises

Electric potential and electric field

Connection for ap® courses

1 Electric potential energy: potential difference

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 The electron volt

1.3 Conservation of energy

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Electric potential in a uniform electric field

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Test prep for ap courses

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

2.5 Problems & Exercises

3 Electrical potential due to a point charge

4 Equipotential lines

5 Capacitors and dielectrics

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Parallel plate capacitor

5.4 Test prep for ap courses

5.5 Section summary

5.6 Conceptual questions

5.7 Problems & Exercises

6 Capacitors in series and parallel

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Capacitance in series

6.3 Capacitors in parallel

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Problems & Exercises

7 Energy stored in capacitors

Electric current, resistance, and ohm's law

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Electric current

1.3 Drift velocity

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 Ohm’s law: resistance and simple circuits

2.1 Learning objectives

2.3 Resistance and simple circuits

2.4 Test prep for ap courses

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Resistance and resistivity

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Material and shape dependence of resistance

3.3 Temperature variation of resistance

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

4 Electric power and energy

5 Alternating current versus direct current

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Alternating current

5.3 Why use ac for power distribution?

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problem exercises

6 Electric hazards and the human body

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Thermal hazards

6.3 Shock hazards

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Problem exercises

7 Nerve conduction–electrocardiograms

Circuits, bioelectricity, and dc instruments

Connection for ap® courses

1 Resistors in series and parallel

2 Electromotive force: terminal voltage

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Electromotive force

2.3 Internal resistance

2.4 Terminal voltage

2.5 Calculating terminal voltage, power dissipation, current, and resistance

2.6 Multiple voltage sources

2.7 Animals as electrical detectors

2.8 Solar cell arrays

2.9 Test prep for ap courses

2.10 Section summary

2.11 Conceptual questions

2.12 Problem exercises

3 Kirchhoff’s rules

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Kirchhoff’s first rule

3.3 Kirchhoff’s second rule

3.4 Applying kirchhoff’s rules

3.5 Calculating current: using kirchhoff’s rules

3.6 Test prep for ap courses

3.7 Section summary

3.8 Conceptual questions

3.9 Problem exercises

4 Dc voltmeters and ammeters

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Analog meters: galvanometers

4.3 Galvanometer as voltmeter

4.4 Galvanometer as ammeter

4.5 Taking measurements alters the circuit

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problem exercises

5 Null measurements

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 The potentiometer

5.3 Resistance measurements and the wheatstone bridge

5.4 Section summary

5.5 Conceptual questions

5.6 Problem exercises

6 Dc circuits containing resistors and capacitors

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 RC Circuits

6.3 Discharging a capacitor

6.4 Integrated concept problem: calculating capacitor size—strobe lights

6.5 RC Circuits for timing

6.6 Test prep for ap courses

6.7 Section summary

6.8 Conceptual questions

6.9 Problem exercises

Connection for ap® courses

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Section summary

1.3 Conceptual questions

2 Ferromagnets and electromagnets

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Ferromagnets

2.3 Electromagnets

2.4 Current: the source of all magnetism

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

2.6 Section summary

3 Magnetic fields and magnetic field lines

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Section summary

3.3 Conceptual questions

4 Magnetic field strength: force on a moving charge in a magnetic field

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Right hand rule 1

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problems & Exercises

5 Force on a moving charge in a magnetic field: examples and applications

6 The hall effect

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Test prep for ap courses

6.3 Section summary

6.4 Conceptual questions

6.5 Problems & Exercises

7 Magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor

8 Torque on a current loop: motors and meters

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Section summary

8.3 Conceptual questions

8.4 Problems & Exercises

9 Magnetic fields produced by currents: ampere’s law

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Magnetic field created by a long straight current-carrying wire: right

9.3 Ampere’s law and others

9.4 Magnetic field produced by a current-carrying circular loop

9.5 Magnetic field produced by a current-carrying solenoid

9.6 Test prep for ap courses

9.7 Section summary

9.8 Conceptual questions

10 Magnetic force between two parallel conductors

10.1 Learning objectives

10.2 Test prep for ap courses

10.3 Section summary

10.4 Conceptual questions

10.5 Problems & Exercises

11 More applications of magnetism

11.1 Learning objectives

11.2 Mass spectrometry

11.3 Cathode ray tubes—crts—and the like

11.4 Magnetic resonance imaging

11.5 Other medical uses of magnetic fields

11.6 Section summary

11.7 Conceptual questions

11.8 Problems & Exercises

Electromagnetic induction, ac circuits, and electrical technologies

Connection for ap® courses

1 Induced emf and magnetic flux

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Test prep for ap courses

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problems & Exercises

2 Faraday’s law of induction: lenz’s law

4 Eddy currents and magnetic damping

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Eddy currents and magnetic damping

4.3 Applications of magnetic damping

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problems & Exercises

5 Electric generators

8 Electrical safety: systems and devices

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Test prep for ap courses

8.3 Section summary

8.4 Conceptual questions

8.5 Problems & Exercises

9.1 Learning objectives

9.3 Energy stored in an inductor

9.4 Section summary

9.5 Conceptual questions

9.6 Problems & Exercises

11 Reactance, inductive and capacitive

12 Rlc series ac circuits

12.1 Learning objectives

12.3 Resonance in RLC Series ac circuits

12.4 Power in RLC Series ac circuits

12.5 Section summary

12.6 Conceptual questions

12.7 Problems & Exercises

Electromagnetic waves

Connection for ap® courses

0.1 Discovering a new phenomenon

1 Maxwell’s equations: electromagnetic waves predicted and observed

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Hertz’s observations

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Problems & Exercises

2 Production of electromagnetic waves

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Electric and magnetic waves: moving together

2.3 Receiving electromagnetic waves

2.4 Relating E -field and B -field strengths

2.5 Test prep for ap courses

2.6 Section summary

2.7 Conceptual questions

2.8 Problems & Exercises

3 The electromagnetic spectrum

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Transmission, reflection, and absorption

3.3 Radio and tv waves

3.4 Fm radio waves

3.5 Radio wave interference

3.7 Heating with microwaves

3.8 Infrared radiation

3.9 Visible light

3.10 Integrated concept problem: correcting vision with lasers

3.11 Ultraviolet radiation

3.12 Human exposure to uv radiation

3.13 Uv light and the ozone layer

3.14 Benefits of uv light

3.16 Gamma rays

3.17 Detecting electromagnetic waves from space

3.18 Test prep for ap courses

3.19 Section summary

3.20 Conceptual questions

3.21 Problems & Exercises

4 Energy in electromagnetic waves

Geometric optics

Connection for ap® courses

1 The ray aspect of light

2 The law of reflection

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Test prep for ap courses

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

2.5 Problems & Exercises

3 The law of refraction

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 The speed of light

3.3 Law of refraction

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

4 Total internal reflection

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Fiber optics: endoscopes to telephones

4.3 Corner reflectors and diamonds

4.4 The sparkle of diamonds

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Dispersion: the rainbow and prisms

6 Image formation by lenses

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Ray tracing and thin lenses

6.3 Image formation by thin lenses

6.4 Finding the image of a light bulb filament by ray tracing and by the

6.5 Image produced by a magnifying glass

6.6 Problem-solving strategies for lenses

6.7 Test prep for ap courses

6.8 Section summary

6.9 Conceptual questions

6.10 Problems & Exercises

7 Image formation by mirrors

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 A concave reflector

7.3 Solar electric generating system

7.4 Image in a convex mirror

7.5 Problem-solving strategy for mirrors

7.6 Test prep for ap courses

7.7 Section summary

7.8 Conceptual questions

7.9 Problems & Exercises

Vision and optical instruments

Connection for ap® courses

1 Physics of the eye

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Test prep for ap courses

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problem exercises

2 Vision correction

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Test prep for ap courses

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

2.5 Problem exercises

3 Color and color vision

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Simple theory of color vision

3.3 Color constancy and a modified theory of color vision

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.5 Section summary

3.6 Conceptual questions

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Microscope magnification

4.3 Test prep for ap courses

4.4 Section summary

4.5 Conceptual questions

4.6 Problem exercises

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Test prep for ap courses

5.3 Section summary

5.4 Conceptual questions

5.5 Problem exercises

Connection for ap® courses

1 The wave aspect of light: interference

2 Huygens's principle: diffraction

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Test prep for ap courses

2.3 Section summary

2.4 Conceptual questions

3 Young’s double slit experiment

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Test prep for ap courses

3.3 Section summary

3.4 Conceptual questions

3.5 Problems & Exercises

4 Multiple slit diffraction

5 Single slit diffraction

6 Limits of resolution: the rayleigh criterion

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Calculating diffraction limits of the hubble space telescope

6.3 Test prep for ap courses

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Problems & Exercises

7 Thin film interference

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Soap bubbles: more than one thickness can be constructive

7.3 Problem-solving strategies for wave optics

7.4 Test prep for ap courses

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problems & Exercises

8.1 Learning objectives

8.2 Polarization by reflection

8.3 Polarization by scattering

8.4 Liquid crystals and other polarization effects in materials

8.5 Test prep for ap courses

8.6 Section summary

8.7 Conceptual questions

8.8 Problems & Exercises

9 *extended topic* microscopy enhanced by the wave characteristics of

Special relativity

Connection for ap® courses

1 Einstein’s postulates

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Einstein’s first postulate

1.3 Einstein’s second postulate

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

2 Simultaneity and time dilation

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Simultaneity

2.3 Time dilation

2.4 The twin paradox

2.5 Section summary

2.6 Conceptual questions

2.7 Problems & Exercises

3 Length contraction

4 Relativistic addition of velocities

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Classical velocity addition

4.3 Relativistic velocity addition

4.4 Doppler shift

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Section summary

4.7 Conceptual questions

4.8 Problems & Exercises

5 Relativistic momentum

6 Relativistic energy

Introduction to quantum physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Quantization of energy

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Planck’s contribution

1.3 Atomic spectra

1.4 Test prep for ap courses

1.5 Section summary

1.6 Conceptual questions

1.7 Problems & Exercises

2 The photoelectric effect

3 Photon energies and the electromagnetic spectrum

4 Photon momentum

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Measuring photon momentum

4.3 Electron and photon momentum compared

4.4 Relativistic photon momentum

4.5 Test prep for ap courses

4.6 Test prep for ap courses

4.7 Section summary

4.8 Conceptual questions

4.9 Problems & Exercises

5 The particle-wave duality

6 The wave nature of matter

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 De broglie wavelength

6.3 Electron microscopes

6.4 Test prep for ap courses

6.5 Test prep for ap courses

6.6 Section summary

6.7 Conceptual questions

6.8 Problems & Exercises

7 Probability: the heisenberg uncertainty principle

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Probability distribution

7.3 Heisenberg uncertainty

7.4 Heisenberg uncertainty for energy and time

7.5 Section summary

7.6 Conceptual questions

7.7 Problems & Exercises

8 The particle-wave duality reviewed

Connection for ap® courses

1 Discovery of the atom

2 Discovery of the parts of the atom: electrons and nuclei

3 Bohr’s theory of the hydrogen atom

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Mysteries of atomic spectra

3.3 Bohr’s solution for hydrogen

3.4 Triumphs and limits of the bohr theory

3.5 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Section summary

3.7 Conceptual questions

3.8 Problems & Exercises

4 X rays: atomic origins and applications

5 Applications of atomic excitations and de-excitations

6 The wave nature of matter causes quantization

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Test prep for ap courses

6.3 Section summary

6.4 Conceptual questions

7 Patterns in spectra reveal more quantization

7.1 Learning objectives

7.2 Section summary

7.3 Conceptual questions

8 Quantum numbers and rules

9 The pauli exclusion principle

9.1 Learning objectives

9.2 Multiple-electron atoms

9.3 Shells and subshells

9.4 Shell filling and the periodic table

9.5 Section summary

9.6 Conceptual questions

9.7 Problem exercises

Radioactivity and nuclear physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Nuclear radioactivity

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Discovery of nuclear radioactivity

1.3 Alpha, beta, and gamma

1.4 Ionization and range

1.5 Test prep for ap courses

1.6 Section summary

1.7 Conceptual questions

2 Radiation detection and detectors

3 Substructure of the nucleus

4 Nuclear decay and conservation laws

5 Half-life and activity

5.1 Learning objectives

5.3 Activity, the rate of decay

5.4 How great is the 14 C Activity in living tissue?

5.5 Human and medical applications

5.6 Test prep for ap courses

5.7 Section summary

5.8 Conceptual questions

5.9 Problems & Exercises

6 Binding energy

6.1 Learning objectives

6.2 Problem-solving strategies

6.3 For reaction and binding energies and activity calculations in nuclear

6.4 Section summary

6.5 Conceptual questions

6.6 Test prep for ap courses

6.7 Problems & Exercises

Medical applications of nuclear physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Medical imaging and diagnostics

1.1 Learning objectives

1.2 Medical application

1.3 Section summary

1.4 Conceptual questions

1.5 Problems & Exercises

2 Biological effects of ionizing radiation

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 Radiation protection

2.3 Problem-solving strategy

2.4 Dose from inhaled plutonium

2.5 Risk versus benefit

2.6 Test prep for ap courses

2.7 Section summary

2.8 Conceptual questions

2.9 Problems & Exercises

3 Therapeutic uses of ionizing radiation

4 Food irradiation

7 Nuclear weapons

Particle physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 The yukawa particle and the heisenberg uncertainty principle revisited

2 The four basic forces

3 Accelerators create matter from energy

3.1 Learning objectives

3.2 Early accelerators

3.3 Modern behemoths and colliding beams

3.4 Test prep for ap courses

3.6 Conceptual questions

3.7 Problems & Exercises

4 Particles, patterns, and conservation laws

4.1 Learning objectives

4.2 Matter and antimatter

4.3 Hadrons and leptons

4.4 Mesons and baryons

4.5 Forces, reactions, and reaction rates

4.6 Calculating quantum numbers in two decays

4.7 Test prep for ap courses

4.9 Conceptual questions

4.10 Problems & Exercises

5 Quarks: is that all there is?

5.1 Learning objectives

5.2 Conception of quarks

5.3 How does it work?

5.4 All combinations are possible

5.5 Now, let us talk about direct evidence

5.6 Quarks have their ups and downs

5.7 What's color got to do with it?—a whiter shade of pale

5.8 The three families

5.9 Test prep for ap courses

5.11 Conceptual questions

5.12 Problems & Exercises

6 Guts: the unification of forces

6.1 Learning objectives

6.3 Conceptual questions

6.4 Problems & Exercises

Frontiers of physics

Connection for ap® courses

1 Cosmology and particle physics

2 General relativity and quantum gravity

2.1 Learning objectives

2.2 General relativity

2.3 Quantum gravity

2.4 Section summary

2.5 Conceptual questions

2.6 Problems & Exercises

4 Dark matter and closure

4.1 Learning objectives

4.3 Theoretical yearnings for closure

4.4 What is the dark matter we see indirectly?

4.5 Section summary

4.6 Conceptual questions

4.7 Problems exercises

5 Complexity and chaos

6 High-temperature superconductors

7 Some questions we know to ask

Source: OpenStax, College physics for ap® courses. OpenStax CNX. Nov 04, 2016 Download for free at https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11844/1.14

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