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A photograph of a large gray tiger shark that swims along the bottom of a saltwater tank full of smaller fish at the Minnesota Zoo.
Sand tiger sharks ( Carcharias taurus ), like this one at the Minnesota Zoo, use electroreceptors in their snouts to locate prey. (credit: Jim Winstead, Flickr)

Solar cell arrays

Another example dealing with multiple voltage sources is that of combinations of solar cells—wired in both series and parallel combinations to yield a desired voltage and current. Photovoltaic generation (PV), the conversion of sunlight directly into electricity, is based upon the photoelectric effect, in which photons hitting the surface of a solar cell create an electric current in the cell.

Most solar cells are made from pure silicon—either as single-crystal silicon, or as a thin film of silicon deposited upon a glass or metal backing. Most single cells have a voltage output of about 0.5 V, while the current output is a function of the amount of sunlight upon the cell (the incident solar radiation—the insolation). Under bright noon sunlight, a current of about 100 mA/cm 2 size 12{"100"" mA/cm" rSup { size 8{2} } } {} of cell surface area is produced by typical single-crystal cells.

Individual solar cells are connected electrically in modules to meet electrical-energy needs. They can be wired together in series or in parallel—connected like the batteries discussed earlier. A solar-cell array or module usually consists of between 36 and 72 cells, with a power output of 50 W to 140 W.

The output of the solar cells is direct current. For most uses in a home, AC is required, so a device called an inverter must be used to convert the DC to AC. Any extra output can then be passed on to the outside electrical grid for sale to the utility.

Take-home experiment: virtual solar cells

One can assemble a “virtual” solar cell array by using playing cards, or business or index cards, to represent a solar cell. Combinations of these cards in series and/or parallel can model the required array output. Assume each card has an output of 0.5 V and a current (under bright light) of 2 A. Using your cards, how would you arrange them to produce an output of 6 A at 3 V (18 W)?

Suppose you were told that you needed only 18 W (but no required voltage). Would you need more cards to make this arrangement?

Test prep for ap courses

Suppose there are two voltage sources – Sources A and B – with the same emfs but different internal resistances, i.e., the internal resistance of Source A is lower than Source B. If they both supply the same current in their circuits, which of the following statements is true?

  1. External resistance in Source A’s circuit is more than Source B’s circuit.
  2. External resistance in Source A’s circuit is less than Source B’s circuit.
  3. External resistance in Source A’s circuit is the same as Source B’s circuit.
  4. The relationship between external resistances in the two circuits can’t be determined.
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Calculate the internal resistance of a voltage source if the terminal voltage of the source increases by 1 V when the current supplied decreases by 4 A? Suppose this source is connected in series (in the same direction) to another source with a different voltage but same internal resistance. What will be the total internal resistance? How will the total internal resistance change if the sources are connected in the opposite direction?

0.25 Ω, 0.50 Ω, no change

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Source:  OpenStax, College physics for ap® courses. OpenStax CNX. Nov 04, 2016 Download for free at https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11844/1.14
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