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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
  • Describe the barrier defenses of the body
  • Show how the innate immune response is important and how it helps guide and prepare the body for adaptive immune responses
  • Describe various soluble factors that are part of the innate immune response
  • Explain the steps of inflammation and how they lead to destruction of a pathogen
  • Discuss early induced immune responses and their level of effectiveness

The immune system can be divided into two overlapping mechanisms to destroy pathogens: the innate immune response, which is relatively rapid but nonspecific and thus not always effective, and the adaptive immune response, which is slower in its development during an initial infection with a pathogen, but is highly specific and effective at attacking a wide variety of pathogens ( [link] ).

Cooperation between innate and adaptive immune responses

This figure shows a lateral view of a human face in the top left. A magnified callout shows the germinal center of the palatine tonsil. Another magnified view shows how the innate immune system works.
The innate immune system enhances adaptive immune responses so they can be more effective.

Any discussion of the innate immune response usually begins with the physical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body, destroy them after they enter, or flush them out before they can establish themselves in the hospitable environment of the body’s soft tissues. Barrier defenses are part of the body’s most basic defense mechanisms. The barrier defenses are not a response to infections, but they are continuously working to protect against a broad range of pathogens.

The different modes of barrier defenses are associated with the external surfaces of the body, where pathogens may try to enter ( [link] ). The primary barrier to the entrance of microorganisms into the body is the skin. Not only is the skin covered with a layer of dead, keratinized epithelium that is too dry for bacteria in which to grow, but as these cells are continuously sloughed off from the skin, they carry bacteria and other pathogens with them. Additionally, sweat and other skin secretions may lower pH, contain toxic lipids, and physically wash microbes away.

Barrier Defenses
Site Specific defense Protective aspect
Skin Epidermal surface Keratinized cells of surface, Langerhans cells
Skin (sweat/secretions) Sweat glands, sebaceous glands Low pH, washing action
Oral cavity Salivary glands Lysozyme
Stomach Gastrointestinal tract Low pH
Mucosal surfaces Mucosal epithelium Nonkeratinized epithelial cells
Normal flora (nonpathogenic bacteria) Mucosal tissues Prevent pathogens from growing on mucosal surfaces

Another barrier is the saliva in the mouth, which is rich in lysozyme—an enzyme that destroys bacteria by digesting their cell walls. The acidic environment of the stomach, which is fatal to many pathogens, is also a barrier. Additionally, the mucus layer of the gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, reproductive tract, eyes, ears, and nose traps both microbes and debris, and facilitates their removal. In the case of the upper respiratory tract, ciliated epithelial cells move potentially contaminated mucus upwards to the mouth, where it is then swallowed into the digestive tract, ending up in the harsh acidic environment of the stomach. Considering how often you breathe compared to how often you eat or perform other activities that expose you to pathogens, it is not surprising that multiple barrier mechanisms have evolved to work in concert to protect this vital area.

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Source:  OpenStax, 101-321-va - vertebrate form and function ii. OpenStax CNX. Jul 22, 2015 Download for free at https://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11850/1.1
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