In summary, there are several key features that distinguish prokaryotic gene expression from that seen in eukaryotes. These are illustrated in
[link] and listed in
[link] .
(a) In prokaryotes, the processes of transcription and translation occur simultaneously in the cytoplasm, allowing for a rapid cellular response to an environmental cue. (b) In eukaryotes, transcription is localized to the nucleus and translation is localized to the cytoplasm, separating these processes and necessitating RNA processing for stability.
Protein targeting, folding, and modification
During and after translation, polypeptides may need to be modified before they are biologically active. Post-translational modifications include:
removal of translated signal sequences—short tails of amino acids that aid in directing a protein to a specific cellular compartment
proper “folding” of the polypeptide and association of multiple polypeptide subunits, often facilitated by chaperone proteins, into a distinct three-dimensional structure
proteolytic processing of an inactive polypeptide to release an active protein component, and
various chemical modifications (e.g., phosphorylation, methylation, or glycosylation) of individual amino acids.
What are the components of the initiation complex for translation in prokaryotes?
What are two differences between initiation of prokaryotic and eukaryotic translation?
What occurs at each of the three active sites of the ribosome?
What causes termination of translation?
Key concepts and summary
In
translation , polypeptides are synthesized using mRNA sequences and cellular machinery, including tRNAs that match mRNA
codons to specific amino acids and ribosomes composed of RNA and proteins that catalyze the reaction.
The
genetic code is
degenerate in that several mRNA codons code for the same amino acids. The genetic code is almost universal among living organisms.
Prokaryotic (70S) and cytoplasmic eukaryotic (80S) ribosomes are each composed of a large subunit and a small subunit of differing sizes between the two groups. Each subunit is composed of rRNA and protein. Organelle ribosomes in eukaryotic cells resemble prokaryotic ribosomes.
Some 60 to 90 species of tRNA exist in bacteria. Each tRNA has a three-nucleotide
anticodon as well as a binding site for a
cognate amino acid . All tRNAs with a specific anticodon will carry the same amino acid.
Initiation of translation occurs when the small ribosomal subunit binds with
initiation factors and an initiator tRNA at the
start codon of an mRNA, followed by the binding to the initiation complex of the large ribosomal subunit.
In prokaryotic cells, the start codon codes for N-formyl-methionine carried by a special initiator tRNA. In eukaryotic cells, the start codon codes for methionine carried by a special initiator tRNA. In addition, whereas ribosomal binding of the mRNA in prokaryotes is facilitated by the Shine-Dalgarno sequence within the mRNA, eukaryotic ribosomes bind to the 5’ cap of the mRNA.
During the
elongation stage of translation, a
charged tRNA binds to mRNA in the
A site of the ribosome; a peptide bond is catalyzed between the two adjacent amino acids, breaking the bond between the first amino acid and its tRNA; the ribosome moves one codon along the mRNA; and the first tRNA is moved from the
P site of the ribosome to the
E site and leaves the ribosomal complex.
Termination of translation occurs when the ribosome encounters a
stop codon , which does not code for a tRNA. Release factors cause the polypeptide to be released, and the ribosomal complex dissociates.
In prokaryotes, transcription and translation may be coupled, with translation of an mRNA molecule beginning as soon as transcription allows enough mRNA exposure for the binding of a ribosome, prior to transcription termination. Transcription and translation are not coupled in eukaryotes because transcription occurs in the nucleus, whereas translation occurs in the cytoplasm or in association with the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Polypeptides often require one or more
post-translational modifications to become biologically active.
Fill in the blank
The third position within a codon, in which changes often result in the incorporation of the same amino acid into the growing polypeptide, is called the ________.
Below is an antisense DNA sequence. Translate the mRNA molecule synthesized using the genetic code, recording the resulting amino acid sequence, indicating the N and C termini.
Antisense DNA strand: 3’-T A C T G A C T G A C G A T C-5’
Communication is effective because it allows individuals to share ideas, thoughts, and information with others.
effective communication can lead to improved outcomes in various settings, including personal relationships, business environments, and educational settings. By communicating effectively, individuals can negotiate effectively, solve problems collaboratively, and work towards common goals.
it starts up serve and return practice/assessments.it helps find voice talking therapy also assessments through relaxed conversation.
miss
Every time someone flushes a toilet in the apartment building, the person begins to jumb back automatically after hearing the flush, before the water temperature changes. Identify the types of learning, if it is classical conditioning identify the NS, UCS, CS and CR. If it is operant conditioning, identify the type of consequence positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement or punishment
nature is an hereditary factor while nurture is an environmental factor which constitute an individual personality. so if an individual's parent has a deviant behavior and was also brought up in an deviant environment, observation of the behavior and the inborn trait we make the individual deviant.
Samuel
I am taking this course because I am hoping that I could somehow learn more about my chosen field of interest and due to the fact that being a PsyD really ignites my passion as an individual the more I hope to learn about developing and literally explore the complexity of my critical thinking skills
hello. autism is a umbrella term. autistic kids have different disorder overlapping. for example. a kid may show symptoms of ADHD and also learning disabilities.
before treatment please make sure the kid doesn't have physical disabilities like hearing..vision..speech problem. sometimes these
Jharna
continue..
sometimes due to these physical problems..the diagnosis may be misdiagnosed.
treatment for autism.
well it depends on the severity.
since autistic kids have problems in communicating and adopting to the environment.. it's best to expose the child in situations where the child
Jharna
child interact with other kids under doc supervision.
play therapy.
speech therapy.
Engaging in different activities that activate most parts of the brain.. like drawing..painting. matching color board game.
string and beads game.
the more you interact with the child the more effective
Jharna
results you'll get..
please consult a therapist to know what suits best on your child.
and last as a parent. I know sometimes it's overwhelming to guide a special kid.
but trust the process and be strong and patient as a parent.
Jharna
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