32.8 America: a.d. 1701 to 1800

Late in the century revolt of slaves in Sainte Domingue (Haiti), led by black leaders Boukman and Louverte, ruined the French colony there and changed this island from the richest colony in the world, with sugar and coffee exports, to the poorest republic. (Ref. 213 ) This revolt must be considered a by-product of the French Revolution. (Ref. 249 ) Slave trouble occurred on Jamaica, also and resulted in 1739 in the governor's signing of a fifteen point treaty with the maroon leader, Captain Cudjoe. The maroons rebelled against both Cudjoe and the settlement, however, and intermittent con licts continued throughout the century. Actually Cudjoe's maroons numbered only some thousands, while the total slave population of Jamaica was about 100,000, with fewer than 10,000 whites. (Ref. 249 ) Even with all their troubles, the planters made at most 8 to 10% profit, the real wealth being accumulated by capitalists in England. (Ref. 292 )

When the British took over the tiny island of St. Eustatius in the Leeward group, in 1781, Admiral Rodney found that Jews comprised at least 1/5 of the merchant population. A fine brick synagogue and a large mikve (bath house) were scheduled to be fully excavated in the summer of 1982. (Ref. 245 , 260 ) Additional Notes (Continue on page 1174)

South america (see map on page 945)

It has been said that in this century South America was powered by 2,000,000 mules, although in the Argentine, ox carts were used. In 1776 Peru had 500,000 mules for trade or drawing coaches on the coast and in the Andes. 50,000 a year were imported from the Argentine pampas. (Ref. 260 ) The human population was about 15,000,000 of which about 20% were Caucasian. (Ref. 213 )

Western and northern coasts of south america

European expeditionary forces continued intermittent fighting over American ports. With 100 ships and 27,000 men, Britain's Admiral Vernon attacked the Spanish fortress at Cartagena, Columbia in 1741, but the Spanish, with the help of malaria and yellow fever, held them off and the British retired to Jamaica, having lost 4,500 soldiers, at least as far as effectiveness was concerned. Cayenne, in French Guinea, was actually a French penal colony. Cocoa plantations in Venezuela were created by the Caracas Company in 1728. Southern Venezuela, however, was a_ wild country with huge flocks of sheep shepherded by Indians and Spanish-Indian half-breeds. (Ref. 292 )

In the Spanish part of South America a relatively small number of Europeans ruled over a large native population, but as the races and skills were gradually mingled some industry developed, so that by 1700 Spanish America was nearly self sufficient. There were only rare, minor uprisings, the most important of these occurring in Peru in 1780 and 81, led by a man claiming royal Inca descent. Earthquakes were frequent, with Lima virtually destroyed in 1746.

With the new liberalization of trade and transport decreed from the new Bourbon monarchy of Spain, the colonies were allowed for the first time to trade freely among themselves. Gradually wider circles of Spanish-Americans began to interest themselves in the new knowledge from Europe. (Ref. 139 ) In the third quarter of the century, under the enlightened Spanish reign of Carlos III, the area had even begun to make preparations for self-government, but then the French Revolution spoiled everything. (Ref. 68 )