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Figure a shows an ellipse, inside which there is a circular image of the Earth. There is a curved arrow in the lower part of the Earth’s image pointing in the counterclockwise direction. Alongside this image a circular image of the Moon is also given with dots showing the crates over it. A vertically upward vector from its top is also drawn, which shows the direction of velocity. To the right side of the image, an image of the Sun is also shown, in a circular shape with pointed wiggles throughout its boundary. Figure b shows an ellipse, inside which there is a circular image of the Earth. There is a curved arrow in the lower part of the Earth’s image pointing in the counterclockwise direction. Alongside this image a circular image of the Moon is also given with dots showing the crates over it. A vertical downward vector from its bottom is also drawn, which shows the direction of velocity. To the right side of the image, an image of the Sun is also shown, in a circular shape and pointed wiggles throughout its boundary. Figure c shows an ellipse, inside which there is a circular image of the Earth. There is a curved arrow in the lower part of the Earth’s image pointing in the counterclockwise direction. Alongside this image a circular image of the Moon is also given with dots showing the crates over it. A horizontal rightward vector from its right side is also drawn, which shows the direction of velocity. To the right side of the image, an image of the Sun is also shown, in a circular shape and pointed wiggles throughout its boundary.
(a, b) Spring tides: The highest tides occur when Earth, the Moon, and the Sun are aligned. (c) Neap tide: The lowest tides occur when the Sun lies at 90º size 12{"90" rSup { size 8{ circ } } } {} to the Earth-Moon alignment. Note that this figure is not drawn to scale.

Tides are not unique to Earth but occur in many astronomical systems. The most extreme tides occur where the gravitational force is the strongest and varies most rapidly, such as near black holes (see [link] ). A few likely candidates for black holes have been observed in our galaxy. These have masses greater than the Sun but have diameters only a few kilometers across. The tidal forces near them are so great that they can actually tear matter from a companion star.

The figure shows a star in sky near a black hole. The tidal force of the black hole is tearing the matter from the star’s surface.
A black hole is an object with such strong gravity that not even light can escape it. This black hole was created by the supernova of one star in a two-star system. The tidal forces created by the black hole are so great that it tears matter from the companion star. This matter is compressed and heated as it is sucked into the black hole, creating light and X-rays observable from Earth.

”weightlessness” and microgravity

In contrast to the tremendous gravitational force near black holes is the apparent gravitational field experienced by astronauts orbiting Earth. What is the effect of “weightlessness” upon an astronaut who is in orbit for months? Or what about the effect of weightlessness upon plant growth? Weightlessness doesn’t mean that an astronaut is not being acted upon by the gravitational force. There is no “zero gravity” in an astronaut’s orbit. The term just means that the astronaut is in free-fall, accelerating with the acceleration due to gravity. If an elevator cable breaks, the passengers inside will be in free fall and will experience weightlessness. You can experience short periods of weightlessness in some rides in amusement parks.

The figure shows some astronauts floating inside the International Space Station
Astronauts experiencing weightlessness on board the International Space Station. (credit: NASA)

Microgravity refers to an environment in which the apparent net acceleration of a body is small compared with that produced by Earth at its surface. Many interesting biology and physics topics have been studied over the past three decades in the presence of microgravity. Of immediate concern is the effect on astronauts of extended times in outer space, such as at the International Space Station. Researchers have observed that muscles will atrophy (waste away) in this environment. There is also a corresponding loss of bone mass. Study continues on cardiovascular adaptation to space flight. On Earth, blood pressure is usually higher in the feet than in the head, because the higher column of blood exerts a downward force on it, due to gravity. When standing, 70% of your blood is below the level of the heart, while in a horizontal position, just the opposite occurs. What difference does the absence of this pressure differential have upon the heart?

Some findings in human physiology in space can be clinically important to the management of diseases back on Earth. On a somewhat negative note, spaceflight is known to affect the human immune system, possibly making the crew members more vulnerable to infectious diseases. Experiments flown in space also have shown that some bacteria grow faster in microgravity than they do on Earth. However, on a positive note, studies indicate that microbial antibiotic production can increase by a factor of two in space-grown cultures. One hopes to be able to understand these mechanisms so that similar successes can be achieved on the ground. In another area of physics space research, inorganic crystals and protein crystals have been grown in outer space that have much higher quality than any grown on Earth, so crystallography studies on their structure can yield much better results.

Practice Key Terms 4

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Source:  OpenStax, Introductory physics - for kpu phys 1100 (2015 edition). OpenStax CNX. May 30, 2015 Download for free at http://legacy.cnx.org/content/col11588/1.13
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