The achievement gap between white and non-white students: a conceptual  (Page 5/19)

Scientific research is emphasized in determining which teaching methods and programs work effectively. Reading and math programs that have been research based and that improve student achievement are fully supported through federal funds under the NCLB Act (No Child Left Behind: A Desktop Reference, 2002). Teale, Paciga, and Hoffman (2007) stated that teaching programs in early literacy development have been given “insufficient attention to curriculum elements for success in reading” to address all students’ developmental reading and writing needs (p. 345). The curriculum elements excluded are comprehension instructions, development of core concepts, and writing instructions. Regardless of research base methods for academic success, educational programs that are provided under the NCLB law have not improved the academic needs of students (Teale et al., 2007).

Equity

Equity is also a major influence in the behaviors, expectations and accomplishments of minorities in society (Clark, 2001; Henderson&Kennedy, 2003). As Ogbu (2008) and Adams (1965) theorized, individuals are influenced by their surroundings and the belief that their work is equivalent to other individuals’ work. When individuals in a society begin to speculate that an imbalance exists in the output (the amount of work) and input (over rewards or under rewards for accomplishment), then feelings of afflictions become present. Human beings (by nature) generally desire a balance in equity, regardless if the balance is to their benefit (Ogbu, 2008). If the balance is not restored, then individuals will generally begin to alter their output. Huseman et al. (1987) built on Adams’ equity theory to create the Equity Sensitivity Construct. In the author’s theory, equity is further divided to include sections where “a number of demographic and psychological variables affect how individuals allocate to themselves and/or others, as well as how they react to inequitable treatment” (Huseman et al., 1987, p. 223).

Cultural-ecological (CE) theory is based on the premise that minorities’ academic achievement is linked to their ethnicity and to their willingness to conform to their environment (Foster, 2004; Ogbu, 1981). In this theory, minority students have the capability to participate successfully with White students within the classroom and on standardized tests (Lynn, 2006). The CE theory (Ogbu, 2008) demonstrated the complexities of community and family dynamics that influence the success and failures of students who are from minority backgrounds. Minority students have the capabilities to succeed in school and on standardized tests, yet, family, culture, and community must work to create an environment that encourages minority students to succeed in academic performance.

The notion of equity in education has been based within similar contexts. The No Child Left Behind Act was created to influence equity within schools and districts, including minorities and students who were LEP (No Child Left Behind: A Desktop Reference, 2002). Henderson and Kennedy (2003) defined educational equity as “…the organizational approach of schools to students in a multi-cultural or multiethnic setting” (p. 38). Students’ perception of the amount of labor that is exerted should be similar in reward (e.g., grade, advancement, internal and external rewards). However, socio-economic status (SES), ethnicity, and gender can hinder education equality in schools and classrooms (Clark, 2001).