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By the end of this section, you will be able to:
  • List and describe the functions of the structural components of a neuron
  • List and describe the four main types of neurons
  • Compare the functions of different types of glial cells

Nervous systems throughout the animal kingdom vary in structure and complexity, as illustrated by the variety of animals shown in [link] . Some organisms, like sea sponges, lack a true nervous system. Others, like jellyfish, lack a true brain and instead have a system of separate but connected nerve cells (neurons) called a “nerve net.” Echinoderms such as sea stars have nerve cells that are bundled into fibers called nerves. Flatworms of the phylum Platyhelminthes have both a central nervous system (CNS), made up of a small “brain” and two nerve cords, and a peripheral nervous system (PNS) containing a system of nerves that extend throughout the body. The insect nervous system is more complex but also fairly decentralized. It contains a brain, ventral nerve cord, and ganglia (clusters of connected neurons). These ganglia can control movements and behaviors without input from the brain. Octopi may have the most complicated of invertebrate nervous systems—they have neurons that are organized in specialized lobes and eyes that are structurally similar to vertebrate species.

Illustration A shows the nerve net of a hydra, which resembles a fish net surrounding the body. Illustration B shows the nervous system of a sea star. A nerve ring is present in the center of the body. Radiating out from this ring into the five arms are radial nerves. Illustration C shows the nervous system of a planarian, or flatworm. The flatworm has centralized ganglia, or brains, around each eye in the anterior end, and two nerve cords that run along the sides of the body. Transverse nerves connect the nerve cords together. Illustration D shows the nervous system of a bee. The central ganglia, or brain, is located in the head. The ventral nerve cord runs along the lower part of the body. Bumps of nerve cell bodies, called peripheral ganglia, occur periodically along the nerve cord. Illustration E shows the nervous system of the octopus, which consists of a large brain located between the two eyes, and nerves that run into the body and arms. Two large ganglia exist in the nerves located in the body. Illustration F shows the nervous system of a human, which consists of a central nervous system composed of the brain and spinal cord, and a peripheral nervous system composed of the nerves running into the rest of the body.
Nervous systems vary in structure and complexity. In (a) cnidarians, nerve cells form a decentralized nerve net. In (b) echinoderms, nerve cells are bundled into fibers called nerves. In animals exhibiting bilateral symmetry such as (c) planarians, neurons cluster into an anterior brain that processes information. In addition to a brain, (d) arthropods have clusters of nerve cell bodies, called peripheral ganglia, located along the ventral nerve cord. Mollusks such as squid and (e) octopi, which must hunt to survive, have complex brains containing millions of neurons. In (f) vertebrates, the brain and spinal cord comprise the central nervous system, while neurons extending into the rest of the body comprise the peripheral nervous system. (credit e: modification of work by Michael Vecchione, Clyde F.E. Roper, and Michael J. Sweeney, NOAA; credit f: modification of work by NIH)

Compared to invertebrates, vertebrate nervous systems are more complex, centralized, and specialized. While there is great diversity among different vertebrate nervous systems, they all share a basic structure: a CNS that contains a brain and spinal cord and a PNS made up of peripheral sensory and motor nerves. One interesting difference between the nervous systems of invertebrates and vertebrates is that the nerve cords of many invertebrates are located ventrally whereas the vertebrate spinal cords are located dorsally. There is debate among evolutionary biologists as to whether these different nervous system plans evolved separately or whether the invertebrate body plan arrangement somehow “flipped” during the evolution of vertebrates.

Watch this video of biologist Mark Kirschner discussing the “flipping” phenomenon of vertebrate evolution.

Questions & Answers

if three forces F1.f2 .f3 act at a point on a Cartesian plane in the daigram .....so if the question says write down the x and y components ..... I really don't understand
Syamthanda Reply
hey , can you please explain oxidation reaction & redox ?
Boitumelo Reply
hey , can you please explain oxidation reaction and redox ?
Boitumelo
for grade 12 or grade 11?
Sibulele
the value of V1 and V2
Tumelo Reply
advantages of electrons in a circuit
Rethabile Reply
we're do you find electromagnetism past papers
Ntombifuthi
what a normal force
Tholulwazi Reply
it is the force or component of the force that the surface exert on an object incontact with it and which acts perpendicular to the surface
Sihle
what is physics?
Petrus Reply
what is the half reaction of Potassium and chlorine
Anna Reply
how to calculate coefficient of static friction
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how to calculate static friction
Lisa
How to calculate a current
Tumelo
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Mogano
How to calculate force
Monambi
a structure of a thermocouple used to measure inner temperature
Anna Reply
a fixed gas of a mass is held at standard pressure temperature of 15 degrees Celsius .Calculate the temperature of the gas in Celsius if the pressure is changed to 2×10 to the power 4
Amahle Reply
How is energy being used in bonding?
Raymond Reply
what is acceleration
Syamthanda Reply
a rate of change in velocity of an object whith respect to time
Khuthadzo
how can we find the moment of torque of a circular object
Kidist
Acceleration is a rate of change in velocity.
Justice
t =r×f
Khuthadzo
how to calculate tension by substitution
Precious Reply
hi
Shongi
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Leago
use fnet method. how many obects are being calculated ?
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Hulisani
how to calculate acceleration and tension force
Lungile Reply
you use Fnet equals ma , newtoms second law formula
Masego
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Source:  OpenStax, Biology. OpenStax CNX. Feb 29, 2016 Download for free at http://cnx.org/content/col11448/1.10
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